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旅游导刊  2018 , 2 (6): 33-46 https://doi.org/10.12054/lydk.bisu.87

Research Paper

过境免签政策与入境旅游增长——基于PSM-DID方法的分析

宋昌耀1, 贾然2, 厉新建2

1. 北京大学政府管理学院 北京 100871
2. 北京第二外国语学院旅游管理学院 北京 100024

Transit Visa-free Policy and Inbound Tourism Growth: An Analysis based on PSM-DID Method

SONG Changyao1, JIA Ran2, LI Xinjian2

1. School of Government, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
2. School of Tourism Management, Beijing International Studies University, Beijing 100024, China

中图分类号:  F59

文献标识码:  A

文章编号:  2096-3238(2018)06-0033-14

收稿日期: 2018-06-25

修回日期:  2018-09-7

网络出版日期:  2018-11-30

版权声明:  2018 《旅游导刊》编辑部 《旅游导刊》编辑部 所有

基金资助:  本文受北京社会科学基金重点项目(项目编号:18JDGLA011)和国家社会科学基金面上项目(项目编号:16BJY139)联合资助

作者简介:

[作者简介] 宋昌耀(1991— ),男,河北邢台人,北京大学政府管理学院博士研究生,研究方向:旅游经济与区域经济。E-mail:songchangyao@sina.com; 贾 然(1993— ),女,北京人,北京第二外国语学院旅游管理学院硕士研究生,研究方向:旅游经济与休闲经济。
厉新建(1973— ),男,浙江东阳人,博士,北京第二外国语学院教授,研究方向:旅游经济发展战略、旅游企业跨国(境)经营等。通讯作者。

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摘要

签证政策对入境旅游增长的推动作用不言而喻。过境免签政策作为一项在国际上行之有效的积极签证政策,亦成为我国促进入境旅游增长的方法之一。本文以京津冀地区为例,基于2008年至2016年的面板数据,创新性地采用倾向得分匹配—双重差分方法(PSM-DID)对过境免签政策的入境旅游增长效应进行验证。结果显示,过境免签政策显著地促进了入境旅游的发展,且此项政策的促进效应当即有效;但是随着时间的推移,碍于该项政策的缺陷,过境免签政策的有效性有所下降。此外,本文采用安慰剂检验后回归结果依然稳健。本文对于研究签证政策的有效性、过境免签政策实施的改进以及旅游研究领域政策评价研究方法的完善都具有参考价值。

关键词: 过境免签 ; 入境旅游 ; 双重差分 ; 倾向得分匹配 ; 京津冀地区

Abstract

Researchers have been focusing on the tourism policies due to the varied policies implemented by the government significantly affecting the development of tourism industry. In particular, visa policies, as the fundamental institutional arrangements of international tourism flows, are attracting increasing attention in the study. Visa restriction and visa liberalization are the important instruments for controlling the movement of people. As a result, visa policy becomes a guarantee of national and economic security while it will also lead to economic loss from refusing potential trade, investment and tourists. Regardless of the reasons for visa policies, the positive impact of visa liberalization and the negative impact of visa restrictions on tourism have become the consensus of most studies. However, transit visa-free policy, as an effective and active visa policy internationally, has attracted few attention. In this paper, based on the panel data from 2008 to 2016 in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region in China, the combination of matching method and difference-in-difference (DID) method was innovatively used to verify the growth effect of transit visa-free policy on inbound tourism. The results showed that the policy significantly promoted the development of inbound tourism, and its promotion functioned immediately. However, due to the flaws of the policy, the effectiveness became weakened gradually. In addition, the regression results were still robust after the Placebo test. This paper is referable for the validity of visa policy, the implementation of visa-free policy and the improvement of research methods for policy evaluation in tourism research.

Keywords: transit visa-free policy ; inbound tourism ; PSM ; DID ; Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei

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宋昌耀, 贾然, 厉新建. 过境免签政策与入境旅游增长——基于PSM-DID方法的分析[J]. 旅游导刊, 2018, 2(6): 33-46 https://doi.org/10.12054/lydk.bisu.87

SONG Changyao, JIA Ran, LI Xinjian. Transit Visa-free Policy and Inbound Tourism Growth: An Analysis based on PSM-DID Method[J]. Tourism and Hospitality Prospects, 2018, 2(6): 33-46 https://doi.org/10.12054/lydk.bisu.87

一、问题的提出

进入21世纪以来,我国入境旅游发展呈现出疲软态势。2001年至2005年我国入境旅游人次增长率达到7.91%,2006年至2010年该项数据下降到2.21%,2011年至2013年则分别为1.24%、—2.2%和—2.51%(中国旅游研究院,2014),入境旅游从快速发展到发展速度放缓甚至停滞,与蓬勃发展的国内旅游及出境旅游比较,显得相形见绌。面对中国入境旅游发展的持续低迷问题,不同机构与专家提出各自见解。如中国旅游研究院认为入境旅游不景气是中国入境旅游在经历高速发展以后向常态复归的现象(中国旅游研究院,2013),具体原因为入境旅游客源国市场与目的地选择的结构性调整及发展水分的挤出;魏小安(2014)认为国内部分旅游城市入境游客数量同比增速放缓或呈现负增长态势为发展常态,不仅符合事物发展的客观规律,而且从侧面彰显出我国入境旅游市场发展的新机遇,作为排名全球入境目的地前五位的国家之一,中国具备进一步发展的潜力,总体向好成为后续调整的必然方向。除对我国入境旅游发展内在逻辑进行宏观分析外,面对入境旅游市场下滑的态势,相关学者亦具体指出了与之构成潜在因果关系的微观要素,如旅游商业环境和基础设施欠佳及旅游监管架构不完善(World Economic Forum,2017)、用卡环境限制(中国旅游研究院,2015)、营销乏力(吴必虎,2015)、签证政策过紧(王兴斌,2013)、汇率波动(王良举、李万莲,2012)等。其中,签证政策对我国入境旅游的制约已经成为共识,影响甚至决定着入境旅游的进一步发展。

国外学者较早关注到签证政策对于入境旅游的作用(Neumayer,2010),例如学者们分别以美国(Neiman & Swagel,2009)、日本(Lee,Song & Bendle,2010)、土耳其(Balli,Balli & Cebeci,2013;Karaman,2016)为研究对象,测量了签证政策对入境旅游的影响作用(Lawson & Roychoudhury,2016),反映出宽松的签证政策所带来的积极效益。同时,我国独特的国情亦成为国际学者展开签证政策与入境旅游关系探讨的研究对象,相关学者分别就我国内地居民赴台湾地区(Su,Lin & Liu,2012)、香港地区(Cheng,2012;Liu & McKercher,2014)签证宽松度的演变开展研究,分析积极的政策条件所带来的正面影响。也有学者以中国特殊事件为背景,以标准旅游需求函数为研究起点,综合考虑宏观经济变量的多方面要素,得出签证限制对国家级、地市级经济发展的双重消极影响(Song,Gartner & Tasci,2012),并在后续研究中探讨奥运会期间入境旅游不升反降的现象,将其归因于我国严格的签证政策制约,再次反映出签证政策对入境旅游的显著影响(Li & Song,2013)。

不难发现,签证政策已成为国内外学者探讨我国入境旅游问题的主要关注点之一,其作用不容忽视。然而,以《全球旅游业竞争力报告》为例,我国已连续在3个统计周期内(2013年、2015年、2017年)在“签证办理”这一统计指标上保持第129位,处在有统计的全球136个国家的尾部(World Economic Forum,2013/2015/2017),与全球一体化趋势仍存在显著差距,严重影响了我国在全球范围内旅游业的竞争力表现。实际上,我国政策制定方在一定程度上已经意识到签证政策的局限与不足。自2013年起,我国在采取“规范签证”等措施后,积极出台签证便利化与简化举措,截至目前已有51个国家的公民具备72小时与144小时过境免签政策资格。在此背景下,我国入境旅游发展也逐渐呈现企稳回升的态势。

那么,签证政策在对促进入境旅游增长方面的有效性究竟如何?这需要采用科学的方法进行验证。相比于中文文献更多采用定性论述,英文文献中已有研究基于时间序列数据(Lee,Song & Bendle,2010;Cheng,2012)或面板数据(Karaman,2016;Czaika & Neumayer,2017)进行实证检验,通过将签证政策设为虚拟变量作为影响因素纳入回归方程中,分析其对国际旅游的影响。然而,多数研究都难以克服因遗漏变量和选择性偏差而产生的内生性问题,因此不足以有力地证明二者间因果关系。实际上,研究者在对签证政策有效性的评估过程中需要克服以下困难:第一,由于只能观察到签证政策发生后的入境旅游经济绩效,无法观测实施该项政策的地区不实施该项政策的“反事实情形”,故而导致难以对政策实施效果进行直接测度。为此,本文将采用反事实检验的方法进行验证。反事实检验旨在测度研究对象在有无外界冲击两种情形下的绩效差别,由于外界冲击已经发生,寻找“真实的”如果没有外界冲击的情况下研究对象的发展结果最为关键。第二,即便能够对积极的签证政策进行准确评估,但由于政策实施行为是内生的,政策实施地区的选择存在挑选赢家的行为,亦即存在选择偏差(selection bias),换句话说,即便不采用积极的签证政策,这些政策实施地区也会出现入境旅游绩效的改善,内生性的存在导致政策绩效评估的偏误。为评估签证政策对入境旅游经济绩效的影响,并在“反事实框架”下准确评估这一政策效果,本文采用倾向得分匹配—双重差分法(PSM-DID)进行验证。其中,双重差分法和倾向得分匹配法分别用来克服上述第一个和第二个困难。

本文的学术贡献有3点:第一,研究视角上,专门论证了签证政策对入境旅游的影响,从而为签证政策的进一步改革提供理论支撑;第二,研究内容上,对过境免签政策进行梳理并进行有效性论证,分析过境免签政策的动态效应及其在时间上的变化趋势;第三,研究方法上,首次将更为前沿的倾向得分匹配—双重差分法(PSM-DID)引入旅游政策的论证中,有助于推进旅游管理与旅游经济研究的深入开展。本文后续安排如下:第二部分概述过境免签政策并确定研究对象;第三部分进行研究设计;第四部分为实证结果;第五部分为结论和建议。

二、过境免签政策概述

总体而言,我国过境免签政策历经了24小时(48小时)—72小时—144小时的成倍式阶段性发展过程。实行之初,除上海机场口岸于2000年率先针对20个国家的公民实施48小时过境免签政策之外,我国其他城市在机场口岸普遍实施的是24小时过境免签政策。随着我国国际地位的不断提高,更多游客选择将中国作为国际航程的中转地,24小时的免签时长显然不足以满足市场需求。在此背景下,2013年1月1日,北京、上海率先正式实施72小时过境免签政策,拉开了我国重点城市72小时免签政策的序幕,随后广州、成都、重庆、沈阳、大连、西安、桂林、昆明、厦门、武汉、天津、哈尔滨、南京、青岛、长沙等地先后申请并将此政策赋予实施,将我国过境免签时长顺利延长至72小时。为支持上海科创中心建设,2016年1月30日起,上海各开放口岸、江苏南京航空口岸、浙江杭州航空口岸对51个国家的人员实施144小时过境免签政策,以实现长三角地区相关口岸过境免签政策联动,我国过境免签政策亦首次实现了时间、空间两个维度的延伸。在长三角地区过境免签政策积极效应的带动下,2017年12月28日起,京津冀地区144小时过境免签政策也正式实施,来自全球53个国家、持有效国际旅行证件和前往第三国(地区)联程客票的外国人可选择在京津冀三地停留6天,从而促进北京、天津、河北三地的协同发展。

北京作为我国入境旅游者首选的目的地之一,在过境免签政策实施方面具有表率性意义。为进一步贯彻落实“国务院关于加快发展旅游业、努力把旅游业培育成国民经济战略性支柱产业”的重要指示精神,北京市政府提出了“在北京口岸实行对部分外国人适当延长过境免签时限政策”的申请,并于2012年4月28日获国务院批准,自2013年1月1日起对45个国家持有第三国签证和联程机票的外国人在北京口岸实行72小时过境免签政策。就政策效果而言,一方面,入境免签政策的颁布着实具备了提升北京旅游吸引力、提振入境旅游市场的深远意义;但另一方面,该政策虽对国际旅客在北京中转有所促进,但效果远不如预期。以首都机场为例,2014年国际旅客量达到2 073万人次,仅约2万人次享受了入境免签政策的便利,占中转时间逾24小时的国际转国际旅客总数的28%。究其原因,相关学者分别从宏观背景、顶层设计、市场需求、限定条件、推广力度、产品与服务配套6个方面给出了解释(中国民航报,2015)。

可以发现,过境免签政策的实施产生了一定的效果,但是并没有达到政策制定者所设想的规模。为此,本文以2013年至2016年北京72小时过境免签政策为案例,选取京津冀城市群作为研究样本,验证过境免签政策的实际效果。选择京津冀地区作为研究样本,一是因为此地区是我国入境旅游经济一体化的样板地区之一(厉新建、宋昌耀、张飞飞,2015),案例地本身具有一定的代表性;二是由于包括西城、东城、海淀、朝阳等16区在内的北京市是实施过境免签政策的地区,而天津市以及河北省11个城市并没有实施该项政策,这便于在比较中检验过境免签政策实施对入境旅游的提升作用。

三、研究设计

1. 研究方法

双重差分法(Difference-in-differences,DID)是经典的评估政策有效性的验证方法,在设定处理组(实施过境免签政策)和对照组(未实施过境免签政策)的基础上通过差分的方法消除不同分组之间的共同特征并且控制不可观测但不随时间变动的组间差异,得到两组地区在政策实施后入境旅游绩效的平均差异,进而测度过境免签政策对入境旅游的平均处理效应(Average Treatment Effect on the Treated,ATT)。

双重差分法的使用具有一定的前提条件,它要求政策变量与因变量变动不相关,亦即在政策实施前实施地区与未实施地区的发展轨迹须是平行的(共同趋势假定),否则会造成选择偏误问题,导致估计结果有偏误且偏向未知(Besley & Case,2000)。为满足这一假定,可以采用倾向得分匹配法(Propensity Score Matching,PSM)与双重差分法相结合来提高估计结果的准确性(Heckman,Ichimura & Todd,1998)。

倾向得分匹配法可以控制处理组与对照组之间不可观测且不随时间变化的组间差异(Heckman,LaLonde & Smith,1999)。此方法的核心逻辑是针对样本数据中不存在实施过境免签政策地区在没有实施此项政策情况下的入境旅游绩效的“反事实情形”,采用半参数估计方法估计实施地区未实施该项政策的倾向得分值,进而为实施地区选择匹配特征尽可能接近的未实施地区,保证处理组与对照组在政策实施前的发展轨迹基本“平行”。

总之,本文采用PSM-DID方法对过境免签政策的入境旅游增长效应进行验证,能够提高分析过程的有效性和科学性。

2. 计量模型

本文的基本计量模型为:

inboundit=β0+β1policyit+β2timeit+β3policyit×timeit)+β4Xit+αi+γt+Vit (1)

式(1)中,被解释变量inboundit表示i地区t时期入境旅游人次的对数;policyit是政策虚拟变量,如果样本属于处理组(实施过境免签政策地区)取值为1,相反,如果样本属于对照组(未实施过境免签政策地区)取值为0;timeit为时间虚拟变量,政策实施前取值为0,政策实施后取值为1;Xit为控制变量;αiγt分别表示个体效应和时间效应;Vit为随机干扰项。PSM-DID方法重点关注估计系数β3,衡量的是过境免签政策的净效应,即过境免签政策对入境旅游的促进作用。

为确保估计模型的稳健性,在借鉴已有理论与文献的基础上,本文设定的控制变量Xit包括:(1)旅游资源禀赋(resource)。入境游客更倾向于选择高等级旅游吸引物,如国家级及以上的旅游资源和世界遗产、国家历史文化名城、国际风景名胜区、国家自然保护区等。计算各地区旅游资源禀赋的丰度以及品位(权重分别为18、7、4、2)的加权对数值,丰度及品位的权重分别为50%。(2)生态环境(pollution)。生态环境是影响入境旅游的重要因素,特别是近些年的雾霾天气成为制约入境旅游发展的主要因素(唐承财、刘霄泉、宋昌耀,2016;唐承财、马蕾、宋昌耀,2017)。由于雾霾主要由二氧化硫、可吸入颗粒物等物质组成,选取各地区二氧化硫排放量和工业粉尘排放量的加权对数值作为生态环境的负向指标,权重分别为50%。(3)对外联系程度(FDI)。入境旅游既包括消遣型旅游也包括事务型旅游,吸引外资水平可以反映一个地区的对外经济联系程度,选取地区实际利用外商投资额的对数表征对外联系程度。(4)基础设施(investment)。基础设施反映一个地区的设施水平和服务能力,直接影响入境游客满意度,选取固定资产投资的对数值表征基础设施发展水平。(5)经济发展水平(GDP)。该项指标是地区知名度、吸引力的综合体现,采用地区生产总值的对数值作为表征。

需要指出的是,根据Abadie(2005)的研究,用于估计倾向得分的协变量既应影响地区的入境旅游水平,同时也应影响地区过境免签政策的实施,以降低样本自选择效应对实证结果的影响。为此,本文将上述控制变量作为倾向得分匹配法的协变量进行匹配。

为考察过境免签政策实施的动态效果,本文引入多期DID模型,将政策虚拟变量与政策实施后的年份的虚拟变量构造交乘项,从而判断政策实施的阶段性效果。修正后的计量模型如下:

inboundit=α0+α1policyit×timeitT+...+policyit×timeitT+N)+α2Xit+Vit (2)

其中,T为过境免签政策开始实施的时期,policyit×timeit表示政策与年份的交乘项,考察该年度过境免签政策的实施效果。

3. 数据来源与描述性统计

本文使用2008年至2016年的面板数据进行实证分析,在一定程度上可以解决遗漏变量所导致的内生性问题。其中,2008年至2012年为政策未实施期,2013年至2016年为政策实施期,与实施该项政策的处理组(北京16区)以及未实施该项政策的对照组(天津及河北11市)共同构成双重差分方法的使用前提。

关于分析所使用的的数据来源,入境旅游人次指标主要来自各地区统计公报(①需要说明的是,京津冀三地统计的入境游客中包括一定比例的来自我国港澳台地区的游客,然而这部分游客并不受过境免签政策的影响。但由于难以获取京津冀地区外国人入境旅游数据,故而采用总体的入境旅游数据作为替代。),旅游资源禀赋指标主要来自各类型景区的统计网站,生态环境、外商投资额、固定资产投资、地区生产总值指标则来自《中国城市统计年鉴》和《北京区域统计年鉴》。

表1报告了计量模型中参与回归分析的各变量的描述性统计结果,包括样本量、均值、标准差、最小值和最大值。

表1   描述性统计结果

Tab.1   Descriptive statistics

变量样本量均值标准差最小值最大值
inbound2521.5912.209—4.6055.814
resource2521.6341.279—2.3033.114
pollution25210.6710.7719.03013.768
FDI2520.9571.905—4.6057.200
investment2526.3871.2283.4909.591
GDP2526.8687.0424.0169.792

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四、实证检验

1. 基于PSM-DID的过境免签政策效应评估

为考察数据集是否符合共同趋势假设,本文以入境旅游人次作为被解释变量,以政策虚拟变量作为解释变量,验证处理组与对照组的差异是否影响入境旅游人次。表2模型(1)表明,是否为政策实施组(policy)对入境旅游人次具有显著影响,在0.01显著性水平下显著表明政策的实施效果并非随机的,亦即原始数据并不满足共同趋势假设。

表2   共同趋势检验

Tab. 2   Common trend hypothesis test

模型(1)模型(3)
匹配前匹配后
policy—0.984***—0.059 8
(—3.86)(—0.37)
常数项2.153***2.333***
(15.41)(18.86)
Log Likelihood—550.4—418.8
N252252

注:括号内是t值;“***”“**”和“*”分别表示0.01/0.05/0.1的显著性水平,下文同。

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为构造“反事实情形”从而使实施过境免签政策的分组与对照组具有共同趋势,本文采用倾向得分匹配法进行匹配。采用马氏距离方法进行一对一的倾向得分匹配,结果如表3,即模型(2)所示。比较匹配前后结果可以发现,相比匹配前的数据,匹配后的数据的均值偏差、中位数偏差均显著降低,匹配效果较好(表4)。进而采用匹配后的数据再次进行共同趋势检验,表2模型(3)表明依据匹配后的数据,政策虚拟变量并不显著影响入境旅游人次,即匹配后的数据满足共同趋势假定。

表3   匹配回归结果[模型(2)]

Tab. 3   Regression results of matching[model(2)]

变量系数标准差tP
resource0.0710.0720.9890.324
pollution0.0280.1310.2150.830
FDI0.6430.0926.9640.000
investment0.2000.1801.1090.269
GDP—0.9690.164—5.9270.000

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表4   匹配前后结果比较

Tab. 4   The results of before and after the matching

样本拟相关系数
(Pseudo R2
似然比检验
(LR chi2)
P
P>chi2)
均值偏差
(MeanBias)
中位数偏差
(MedBias)
匹配前0.693238.610.000123.8114.8
匹配后0.1352.030.0003741.3

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采用匹配后的数据和双重差分法对过境免签政策的入境旅游增长效应进行检验(表5),结果显示,平均处理效应为0.679,在0.05的显著性水平下正向显著,即过境免签政策显著促进了北京入境旅游人次的增长,实施过境免签政策平均能使地区入境旅游人次增加0.679%。这一数值虽小,但显示出过境免签政策的有效性。这一结论与Song、Gartner和Tasci(2012)对中国签证政策的研究结果一致。采用时间—个体双固定效应模型的回归结果依然稳健。

表5   基于双重差分法的平均处理效应检验[模型(4)结果]

Tab. 5   Average treatment effect test based on DID method[results of model(4)]

基期实验期
结果变量控制组处理组差分控制组处理组差分双重差分
入境旅游人次(匹配后)6.7766.305—0.4716.6996.9070.2080.679
标准误差1.41.2750.2771.391.2170.320.28
t4.846.41—1.76.726.791.652.43
P0.0000.0000.090*0.0000.0000.5170.016**

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过境免签政策对入境旅游增长效应的有效性主要来自两个方面:第一,符合过境免签政策的国际旅客转化为入境游客。依据北京首都国际机场股份有限公司的数据统计,2013年72小时过境免签政策实施后,截至2016年,国际旅客年均增长25.1%(杜强,2018)。可以确定,这些国际旅客中有相当一部分转化成为北京市的入境游客(2014年这一比例为28%),促进了北京市入境旅游经济绩效的增长。第二,进行过境免签政策宣传的同时加大了对北京旅游形象的宣传。过境免签政策的制定者在宣传该项政策的过程中向潜在国际旅客进行北京旅游产品的推广,间接激发潜在目标群体的旅游动机,进而促使其在北京开展旅游活动。总体而言,过境免签政策显著推动了北京入境旅游的增长,虽然这一效应在绝对值上相对较小,但这与能够享受这一政策的国际旅客总体规模有关(杨波,2015),因此启示政策制定方对该项政策进行修订以覆盖更多的群体。

2. 过境免签政策的时间效应

考虑到公共政策实施的时间效应问题,本文将2013年过境免签政策实施以来的各年份纳入回归方程中,结果如表6所示。其中,模型(5)(6)(7)分别是混合回归模型(OLS)、固定效应模型(FE)和随机效应模型(RE)。基于面板数据,综合F检验和Hausman检验(Hausman检验P值为0.095 2),可知固定效应更佳。模型(6)中交叉项系数是本文关注的重点。可以发现,自2013年过境免签政策实施以来,交叉项系数大小呈现倒U型变化,2016年该政策的估计系数不显著。这反映出过境免签政策的实施具有以下特征:第一,过境免签政策的入境旅游增长效应显著。虽然个别年份估计系数不显著,但总体来看,过境免签政策显著地促进了入境旅游的增长。政策效应是当即有效的,这也符合该项政策的特点;并且在实施的第二年达到最大值(2014年享受免签的旅客量较上年有较大幅度的增长)(史博利,2015),这是由于政策的宣传和实施具有一定的迟滞性。72小时过境免签政策的推介主要依赖旅游企业,缺乏政府层面统一制定的有针对性的宣传方案,单纯依靠企业行为推广这一政策,效果显现较慢(中国民航报,2015)。第二,该项政策的实施效果具有一定的短期性特征。虽然总体而言是显著的,但是从总体趋势上看,估计系数越来越小,甚至在2016年已经不显著。换句话说,该政策存在一定的缺陷致使其难以持续发挥预期效应。究其原因,这既与宏观环境有关,也与该项政策本身的局限性有关。宏观层面,不景气的全球经济走势制约着我国入境旅游的发展;微观层面,对免签游客严格限定区域及时间,免签国家的航线与我国航空公司航线网络匹配程度较低,较为粗放和滞后的政策宣传策略,以及缺乏相应的旅游产品开发与服务配套,都体现出该项政策在顶层架构层面未集成合力,从而造成了在持续吸引入境旅游上的乏力。这就有待在政策后续实施中进一步改进,以形成更强的拉动力。

表6   过境免签政策的时间效应检验

Tab. 6   Time effect test for visa-free policy

模型(5)模型(6)模型(7)
OLSFERE
交叉项系数
policy×time2011—0.1810.254—0.016 1
(—0.59)(0.89)(—0.06)
policy×time2012—0.1150.300—0.000 398
(—0.34)(1.00)(—0.00)
policy×time20130.2750.643**0.315
(0.73)(2.00)(1.21)
policy×time20140.577**0.917***0.563**
(1.99)(2.65)(2.07)
policy×time20150.5230.847**0.437
(1.61)(2.04)(1.38)
policy×time20160.2830.5800.137
(0.65)(1.14)(0.34)
控制变量系数
resource0.053 0—0.2780.069 2
(0.77)(—0.53)(0.60)
pollution0.048 6—0.109—0.066 5
(0.37)(—0.54)(—0.37)
FDI0.613***0.295***0.416***
(6.66)(3.11)(4.97)
investment0.302*0.782**0.342*
(1.95)(2.28)(1.84)
GDP—0.947***—1.691***—0.735***
(—5.72)(—2.73)(—3.33)
常数项5.599***10.03***5.270***
(4.84)(3.14)(2.80)
模型(5)模型(6)模型(7)
OLSFERE
Log Likelihood—379.7—310.1
N252252252

注:括号内是t值。

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自2011年起,北京和上海开始积极申请实行72小时过境免签政策,2012年获国务院批准,2013年开始实施。因此作为稳健性检验,将2011年和2012年的交叉项纳入回归方程中,其估计系数并不显著,表明过境免签政策有效性的回归结果并不具有随机性。综上,可以认为本文的回归结果是显著且稳健的。

五、结论与建议

本文以京津冀地区为例,基于2008年至2016年的面板数据,创新性地采用倾向得分匹配—双重差分方法对过境免签政策的入境旅游增长效应进行验证。结果显示,过境免签政策显著地促进了入境旅游的发展,且此项政策的促进效应当即有效。但是随着时间的推移,碍于宏观经济形势不景气以及该项政策的缺陷,使得过境免签政策促进入境旅游增长的有效性有所下降。

基于以上结论,本文提出以下建议:第一,实施更为积极的签证政策。签证政策的积极作用不言而喻,过境免签政策有效地推动了入境旅游的增长。(1)政府层面应当积极推动过境免签政策的宣传,促使更多的潜在国际旅客了解该项政策。(2)延长旅客过境期间在境内的停留时间,如韩国对拥有指定第三国签证的旅客实施停留长达30天的过境免签。(3)优化进出口岸规定。实现全口岸开放,并实现政策实施地区内不同口岸的进出,从而实现不同地区和口岸之间的联动。第二,提升对外联系程度。(1)坚持扩大开放力度,加强与国外在经济、贸易、文化方面的往来,提升目的地知名度和美誉度。(2)处理好航线与航权的关系,实现航权与航线的匹配。积极开拓具有过境免签资格国家的航线,同时扩大过境免签政策国家的范围。第三,加强旅游品牌推广力度。在打造旅游目的地吸引力的同时,更应该加强旅游目的地的品牌推广。(1)优化目的地营销策略,有针对性地对中转型国际旅客进行目的地推广。(2)积极开发与过境免签政策相符合的入境旅游产品,充分考虑过境免签旅客的时间限制、口岸要求和旅游偏好,提高过境免签旅客的转化率。

本文具有一定局限性。由于数据可获得性的限制,本文未将天津市各区作为独立个体进行分析,使得文章在对直辖市市辖区的处理上有所差别,此外,也难以将我国港澳台地区游客从入境游客总量中剥离。以全国尺度为研究对象,将所有实施过境免签政策的城市作为处理组,其他城市作为对照组进行双重差分分析,是未来研究进一步探讨的方向。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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[J]. Applied Geography,2017(84):75~82.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

States have a general interest in facilitating the cross-border mobility of people in order to benefit from economic globalisation. Yet, mainly due to security concerns, most governments grant visa-free mobility only very selectively. Drawing on a new bilateral visa policy database covering up to 194 destination and 214 origin countries over the 1995 to 2013 period, our analysis finds that the introduction of a visa restriction by a destination country for citizens from a particular origin country deters tourism inflows by more than 20 percent. Visa restrictions also reduce bilateral trade and foreign investment, but to a smaller extent than previous studies have suggested. Exploring heterogeneity across countries, we find visa restrictions to be economically most harmful for poorer countries. We further find that some of the deterred flows in tourists, goods and services, and capital are redirected to other visa-free destinations
[5] Cheng K M.

Tourism demand in Hong Kong: Income, prices and visa restrictions

[J]. Current Issues in Tourism, 2012, 15(3): 167~181.

[本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper examines the determinants of Hong Kong tourism demand for the top-three major tourist arrival countries, namely Mainland China, Taiwan, and Japan, with an error correction model. Specifically, this paper will examine the effects of relaxing the visa requirement, the launch of the Individual Visit Scheme (IVS), for Mainland Chinese tourists in 2003. Empirical results show that tourists are income-elastic and consider international tourism to be a luxury good. Tourists are more sensitive to changes in the nominal exchange rate than to changes in the foreign pricing level. The positive effect of the launch of the IVS for Mainland Chinese tourists outweighs the adverse impact of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) on tourism demand for Hong Kong.
[6] Heckman J J, Ichimura H, Todd P.

Matching as an econometric evaluation estimator

[J]. The Review of Economic Studies, 1998, 65(2): 261~294.

[本文引用: 1]     

[7] Heckman J J, Lalonde R J, Smith J A.

The economics and econometrics of active labor market programs

[J]. Handbook of Labor Economics, 1999(3): 1865~2097.

[本文引用: 1]     

[8] Karaman A S.

The pernicious impact of visa restrictions on inbound tourism: The case of Turkey

[J]. Turkish Studies, 2016, 17(3): 502~524.

[本文引用: 2]      摘要

Abstract Visa policies have been important instruments of control for the movement of people and what they effectuate depends on their character. They impede the flow of people when they are restrictive; they facilitate the entry and admission of people when they are liberal. Turkey has been using visa policies liberally for long to stimulate tourism growth. In this paper, the log-linearized version of gravity-type models is used to analyze Turkey tourism demand relating inbound travel to visa requirements, macroeconomic variables, distance and regional contiguity. The countries are segmented into clusters according to travel freedom their citizens enjoy using the Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index by employing the two-step cluster analysis. It is found that the visa restrictions imposed on a country has a detrimental impact of 29 percent on average on inward mobility and this impact is on the higher side for countries with almost visa-free travel.
[9] Lawson R A, Roychoudhury S.

Do travel visa requirements impede tourist travel?

[J]. Journal of Economics and Finance, 2016, 40(4): 817~828.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

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[10] Lee C K, Song H J, Bendle L J.

The impact of visa-free entry on outbound tourism: A case study of South Korean travellers visiting Japan

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 2010, 12(2): 302~323.

[本文引用: 2]      摘要

Although visa-free entry is important to tourism flows across borders there has been limited academic research into the effects of this arrangement on international tourism demand. Using the ARIMA, the ARIMA intervention, Winters Exponential Smoothing and the Stepwise Autoregressive models, this study examined the effect of visa-free entry on tourism demand between South Korea and Japan, and estimated the impact of this visa-free travel on tourism numbers and receipts. The results showed that for Koreans visiting Japan, introducing visa-free travel was statistically significant with a positive sign. In the first year tourists increased by 12.1 percent and receipts by $US246 million and in the second year tourists increased by 25 percent and receipts by $US792 million. The key finding is that in a market with strong effective demand, the influence of a change to visa-free entry could be greater than 20 percent. However, as individual, national and external reasons modulate each context, further research into the influence of visa controls on various established tourism markets is recommended.
[11] Li S N, Song H Y.

Economic impacts of visa restrictions on tourism: A case of two events in China

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 2013(43): 251~271.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

Increasing attention has been paid to evaluate the impacts of large scale events on tourism demand. For providing policy suggestions, it should consider the economic impact of both events themselves and other factors. This paper evaluates the economic effects of visa restrictions on tourism as a result of the 1989 Tian'an Men Square Incident and the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games by using an innovative combination of econometric and computable general equilibrium (CGE) models. The results show that both events generated economic losses. The unexpected negative economic impact of the Beijing Olympics seems attributable to visa restrictions. Suggestions for the alleviation of the negative impact of visa regulations are provided.
[12] Liu A Y, McKercher B.

The impact of visa liberalization on tourist behaviors:The case of China outbound market visiting Hong Kong

[J]. Journal of Travel Research, 2014, 55(5): 603~611.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

The potential offered by the China outbound tourism market will create pressure on destinations to relax their visa requirements in order to capitalize on the opportunities it presents. Prior research into the impacts of visa liberalization indicates that the volume of arrivals increases substantially. However, little research has been conducted examining changes in profile of visitors and their resultant behaviors. This study examines changes in the Chinese pleasure visitor market to Hong Kong from 1998 to 2012. The study is grounded in market access theory. In addition to the significant increase of arrivals during that time, behavior patterns have changed almost completely, as independent tourists have been freed from the constraints imposed by tour group participation. The study has valuable implications for other destinations that are likely to relax visa requirements for markets like China.
[13] Neiman B, Swagel P.

The impact of post-9/11 visa policies on travel to the United States

[J]. Journal of International Economics, 2009, 78(1): 86~99.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

American and foreign businesses, politicians, and media have all pointed to post-9/11 changes in visa policies as being responsible for the sharp decline in travel to the United States following the attacks. Using an empirical model which distinguishes the impact of visa policy from economic and country-specific factors, we find that changes in visa policy were not important contributors to the decrease in travel to the United States. Rather, the reduction in entries was largest among travelers who were not required to obtain a visa.
[14] Neumayer E.

Visa restrictions and bilateral travel

[J]. The Professional Geographer, 2010, 62(2): 171~181.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

The vast majority of states impose visa restrictions on travelers from some foreign countries. Such restrictions are likely to deter foreign visitors from affected countries. They will therefore reduce the flow of tourists, businesspeople, and other travelers and thereby damage a country's tourism industry, reduce its trade, and affect its scientific, cultural, and other exchanges with foreign countries. This study estimates the damaging effect exerted by visa restrictions on bilateral travel in a country dyad data set covering the period from 1995 to 2005. It finds that, depending on the exact model specification chosen, visa restrictions reduce such travel by on average between 52 and 63 percent but with substantial regional variation. Given this large detrimental effect of visa restrictions on bilateral travel, the article discusses the determinants of why states impose such restrictions.
[15] Song H Y, Gartner W C,

Tasci A D A. Visa restrictions and their adverse economic and marketing implications:Evidence from China

[J]. Tourism Management, 2012, 33(2): 397~412.

[本文引用: 2]      摘要

Governments spend considerable public resources, including tax dollars, on marketing their cities or countries in order to become a strong brand attractive for exports, foreign direct investment and tourism. Ironically at the same time, self-imposed and strict visa regulations that can potentially hamper the productivity of marketing and branding are fairly common. There are valid reasons for imposing strict visa regulations, two of the most important being national and economic security. Although strict visa regulations are a common phenomenon around the world, the tourism academia have yet to argue against strict visa regulations by providing empirical evidence on their potential impact on tourism demand, and hence the economy. The current study is a pioneer attempt to generate awareness about the potential detrimental impacts of visa restrictions on a country economy, by using the case of People Republic of China, one of the countries known to have a history of strict visa regulations. The research reported in this paper was based on the standard tourism demand function, which models the causal relationship between tourism demand and a number of macroeconomic variables. The autoregressive distributed lag model (ADLM) was used since it has a dynamic specification that takes the time path of the tourist decision-making process into consideration by using both current and lagged values of variables. Results show the negative effect of visa regulations on both country-level and prefecture-level economies. Implications are discussed and recommendations provided.
[16] Su Y W, Lin H L, Liu L M.

Chinese tourists in Taiwan: Crowding out effects, opening policy and its implications

[J]. Tourism Management Perspectives, 2012(4): 45~55.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

78 We study the impact of a legislation allowing Chinese tourists to travel into Taiwan. 78 Tourist arrival from China to Japan is used as a reference for opening policies. 78 Chinese outbound tourism is highly related to policies in destination countries. 78 Chinese tourists crowd out Taiwan's international tourists from Japan and U.S. 78 Model parameters are jointly estimated with outlier effects.
[17] World Economic Forum.

Travel and tourism competitiveness report 2013

[R]. Geneva: WEF, 2013.

[18] World Economic Forum.

Travel and tourism competitiveness report 2015

[R]. Geneva: WEF, 2015.

[19] World Economic Forum.

Travel and tourism competitiveness report 2017

[R]. Geneva: WEF, 2017.

[本文引用: 1]     

[20]

杜强. 京津冀实行144小时过境免签 53个国家旅客受惠

[EB/OL]. , 2018-01-04.

[本文引用: 1]     

[21] 厉新建, 宋昌耀, 张飞飞.

京津冀入境旅游经济一体化水平测度及提升策略

[J]. 燕山大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2015, 16(2): 115~121.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游经济一体化是区域经济一体化的重要体现。文章选取19952013年京津冀三地入境旅游数据,通过计算京津冀入境旅游经济一体化水平的实际分布与理论分布的差距SKLD值,测度三地之间的一体化水平,并借助1997-2009年天津、河北的市场化指数对一体化变化原因进行分析。研究发现,SKLD值从1995年的1.820下降到2013年的0.201.京津冀入境旅游经济一体化的实际分布与理论分布差距缩小,一体化水平提升;国际国内重大事件如亚洲金融危机、“非典”、全球金融危机等引发一体化进程出现波动;相比河北,天津对京津冀入境旅游经济一体化的贡献更大;市场化是推动京津冀入境旅游经济一体化进程的重要影响因素。最后,从区域分工与合作角度对京津冀入境旅游经济一体化水平提升给出建议,旨在为发展实践提供借鉴。
[22]

史博利. 通关政策进一步优化各大机场实施72小时免签政策

[EB/OL]. , 2015-01-17.

[本文引用: 1]     

[23] 唐承财, 刘霄泉, 宋昌耀.

雾霾对区域旅游业的影响及应对策略探讨

[J]. 地理与地理信息科学, 2016, 32(5): 121~126.

[本文引用: 1]      摘要

运用文献梳理、归纳分析、演绎推理等方法,从旅游资源、旅游交通、旅游产品、旅游市场、旅游者、旅游效益等方面分析雾霾对区域旅游业的影响。研究表明:雾霾对区域旅游业的影响以负面为主,主要表现在:1)雾霾直接或间接影响着多种旅游资源保护与开发。2)雾霾突出影响着旅游交通的安全性及其正常运营管理。3)雾霾促使区域入境旅游市场萎缩,并对旅游者的身心健康、旅行行为、体验质量、旅游安全等带来潜在影响。4)雾霾会导致区域旅游业的经济、社会与生态环境效益下滑。此外,雾霾对区域旅游业也具有少量正面影响,例如促进了旅游企业开发新型低碳旅游产品等。最后,从5个方面提出区域旅游业应对雾霾的策略。
[24] 唐承财, 马蕾, 宋昌耀.

雾霾天气影响北京入境旅游吗?——基于面板数据的实证检验

[J]. 干旱区资源与环境, 2017, 31(1): 192~197.

[本文引用: 2]     

[25] 王良举, 李万莲.

人民币升值对中国入境旅游的影响评估——基于扩展旅游引力模型的实证分析

[J]. 旅游科学, 2012, 26(5): 38~44, 94.

[本文引用: 2]      摘要

汇率变动通过价格效应对入境旅游需求产生影响。在人民币面临较大升值压力的背景下,探讨人民币升值对中国入境旅游的影响具有重要的现实意义。本文基于标准贸易引力模型和传统旅游引力模型,构建一个扩展的旅游引力模型,采用面板数据计量方法实证分析了人民币升值对中国入境旅游发展的影响,结果表明:人民币升值给中国入境旅游发展带来了强烈的冲击,客源国的经济发展水平及其人口规模以及中国的经济发展水平与中国入境旅游发展呈正相关关系,客源国与中国的距离则是中国入境旅游发展的一个阻碍因素。
[26] 王兴斌.

大陆入境旅游滑坡原因何在

[N]. 中国青年报, 2013-08-09(11).

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[27] 魏小安.

中国入境游须借“全球一体化”契机深入调整

[EB/OL]. , 2014-09-09.

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[28] 吴必虎.

中国入境旅游如何摆脱困境?

[EB/OL]. , 2015-01-13.

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[29] 杨波.

中国72小时过境免签政策开放再思考

[EB/OL]. , 2015-07-02.

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[30] 中国旅游研究院. 中国入境旅游发展年度报告2013[R]. 北京: 旅游教育出版社, 2013.

[31] 中国旅游研究院. 中国入境旅游发展年度报告2014[R]. 北京: 旅游教育出版社, 2014.

[32] 中国旅游研究院. 中国入境旅游发展年度报告2015[R]. 北京: 旅游教育出版社, 2015.

[33] 中国民航报.

“72小时过境免签”政策为何效果不明显?

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